Education

                                            KIGALI INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

            FACULTY OF EDUCATION

            COMBINATION OF EDUCATION AND GEOGRAPHY   

                                    EDP 202 
                                      Group: II. Education-Geography 

     Group members

No	Reg. No
1	5762/09
2	5838/09
3	5843/09
4	5844/09
5	5849/09
6	5853/09
7	5859/09
8	5863/09
9	5869/09
10	5870/09
11	5874/09
12	5878/09
13	5884/09
14	5887/09
15	5889/09

                      ABOUT THE AUTHORS
About Jean Marshall
          Lara Jean Marshall (born 30 July 1988 in London is an English-born Australian actress and recording artist. She is probably best known for her co-starring role as Lisa Atwood in the popular Australian television series The Saddle Club, alongside Keenan MacWilliam and Sophie Bennett.
Marshall was four when her parents took her to see a stage production. She reportedly became so enthralled she refused to leave the theatre after the play's conclusion. Since then she has remained infatuated with acting, earning her first stage role at the age of seven in a minor part as the lamb in a Kidz for Kidz production of Charlotte's Web and later singing and dancing in Babes in Toyland for the People's Playhouse. It was not until being chosen as Young Eponine in Les Miserable for Cameron Mackintosh's 10th Anniversary presentation of the classic in Melbourne, that things began to look bright. Marshall also attended Toorak College in her schooling years. Since 2009, Marshall has been training at the Victorian College of the Arts (Melbourne University).
About Ms. Stewart

Ms. Stewart is currently a Lecturer and the Director of Undergraduate Studies at Texas State University-San Marcos and has formerly taught as an adjunct faculty member at St. Edward's University in Austin and at Austin Community College. She held the position of Assistant Basic Course Director at Texas State August 1999 - August 2000. She was honored as the Outstanding Graduate Student and as Outstanding Teaching Assistant in 2000 by the Texas State University-San Marcos Department of Communication Studies.

Ms. Stewart's corporate work experience includes Executive Vice President - Regional Manager at Fidelity National Title Insurance Company, Irvine, California; Regional Sales Manager at TRW Title Insurance Company, Overland Park, Kansas; and Regional Sales Representative, Title U.S.A. Title Insurance Company, Irving, Texas.

Ms. Stewart has volunteered at Adult Services Council, American Cancer Society, and the YMCA. At present, she is working with animal rescue, specifically Texas Siamese Rescue and Town Lake Animal Shelter. Her personal interests include sailing, traveling, gardening, and music.

In addition to her teaching at Texas State, Ms. Stewart works with textbook publishers as an author of instructor resource manuals and textbook websites.



Sample of Courses Taught

COMM 1310 Fundamentals of Human Communication
A first course in Communication Studies. Study aims at understanding fundamentals of oral communication, and how they are integrated into interpersonal, small group, and presentational speaking contexts.

COMM 2330 Small Group Communication
A study of communication in the small group, including analysis of the influence of group structure, teambuilding, norms, roles, leadership and climate on group process. Special emphasis on problem- solving discussion. Prerequisite: COMM 1310.

COMM 2338 Public Speaking
This course helps the student to develop personal speaking skills and introduces principles of contemporary types of speeches. Prerequisite: COMM 1310.

COMM 3318G Professional Communication
Application of self-presentation and interaction concepts and skills to the transition from undergraduate studies to professional life, including resume preparation and presentation, interviewing, and interaction management in business nad professional settings.




                        CONTENT
 

1. Introduction
2. unit I: Parenthood and Pregnancy
3. Physical development
4. Nutrition and Health
5. Intellectual, Social and Emotional development
6. The family and Community.

                         







 

        INTRODUCTION 

            In this book, Jean Marshall and Sue Stuart studied the needs of young children, social and environmental influences that affect their development in a contemporary changing and multicultural society. The book is divided into 5 units:

1. parenthood and pregnancy
2. physical development
3. nutrition and health
4. intellectual, social and emotional development
5. the family and the community

UNIT I: PARENTHOOD AND PREGNANCY 

1. PRE-CONCEPTUAL CARE

Pre-conceptual care is a health of a woman before conception. Before having baby, both partners should consider the responsibilities each one will have. The couples should consider the following factors. 

• Maturity: couple needs to be mature enough to cope with parenthood and to be able to make decisions.
• Financial support: finance needs to be planned in advance in order to maintain an adequate standard of living.
• Accommodation: couple should provide child needs with a clear, safe environment within warm and secure home.
• Changing lifestyles: the couple should be aware that the life style will be changed once the baby has arrived.

2. CONCEPTION

 This is the union of sperm from male and ovum from female to give a zygote. 

1. Development of the embryo and fetus
• Embryo: is the implantation of fertilized egg into the uterus lining.
• Fetus is the development of embryo in 8 weeks after conception.
• Pregnancy: is the time from conception to birth. It lasts 40 weeks.

2. Support and nourishment for the fetus.

The fertilized egg provides the fetus with following structures that will support and nourish it until the birth: -Placenta,-the umbilical cord, -the amniotic sac 

3. Multiple births

This may occur when there is more than one fetus developing in uterus. Sometimes we can have identical twins and non-identical twins. 

• Identical twins: these twins share the same placenta and they must have the same sex.
• Non-identical twins: these occur when two eggs are released at the same time and are both fertilized by different sperms.

3. FAMILY PLANNING

Each family should plan to have a number of children according to their available resources or income. The following are the methods of family planning: 

1. Natural family planning

This will show the times when the sexual intercourse can take place. This method is successful only if both partners are committed to the method. 

2. Artificial family planning

Those methods are: -Intrauterine device, Intrauterine system, Female sterilization, Make sterilization (vasectomy). 

4. BIRTH

 At around 40 weeks after conception, the baby is ready to be born. The process of giving birth is called “Labor”. There are three signs that indicate the mother that the labour has started. Those are:

1. A show: it is breaking of the waters (mucus). The amniotic sac containing the amniotic fluid may break.
2. Contractions: these start slowly and become stronger and more frequent during the 1^st stage of labour.

COMPLICATION DURING BIRTH
Sometimes complication can occur during the birth and special treatment may be required in order to deliver the baby. 

1. Breech birth:  This occurs when a baby is born either feet or bottom. This is called “breech position”
2. Forceps delivery: This is used when the baby is in an awkward position or if the mother is becoming exhausted and the contraception is not strong enough to push the baby out.
3. Ventouse (sanction) delivery: A special cap is connected to a suction pump. The cap is placed against the head of baby and vacuum is created.
4. Caesarian section: this involves an operation to remove the baby. The incision is made through the abdominal wall of the uterus so the baby can be removed.
5. Induction: sometimes labour needs to be started off artificially. Babies are induced because the baby is overdue by fourteen days or because the baby’s or the mother’s health is at risk.

PREPARING FOR THE BABY
It is important for parents and carers to prepare for the physical, social and emotional needs of newborn to ensure the baby will be growing within a warm, secure and loving environment. 
Social and emotional needs: Parents and carers need to be aware that babies are influenced by environment they are brought up in from an early age. Babies need to develop feeling of affection, they need close contact to establish and form emotions towards the people around them. 
Physical needs: Those require both clothing and certain items of nursery equipments for example high chair, vests, socks.. 
UNIT II.  PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF NEWBORN 

1. INCREASE IN WEIGHT AND HEIGHT

The “neo-natal” is the term used for the first week after birth. When baby is born, the three measurements recorded are:
                  *Weight: Average of weight of a full term is 3.5 kg (7.5lbs)
                  *Height: Average of height is about 50cm (20 inches)
                  *Head circumference: Average head circumference is about 35cm (13.5 inches). 
CHARACTERISTICS OF A NEWBORN BABY
At birth, the baby’s skin is covered in a greasy, white substance called “vernix”. The color and amount of the hair varies. Some have hardly any hair others have a large amount, they can see when they are born but they are short-sighted and they have fingernails, toenails and then a head is more developed than the body. In the first four months, babies double their birth weight, they grow 1 inch per month. An infant of 12 months is capable of sitting, standing, stopping, walking, running and climbing. 

1. Reflex actions

A new born shows several reflex actions.
1. Sucking reflex: A baby will suck on anything that is put on his/her mouth.
2. Rooting reflex: it takes place when one side of baby’s cheek is thought the baby’s head will turn towards it searching for the mother’s nipple.
3.  Stepping reflex: It occurs when held upright with the feet on a flat surface, the baby will make forward stepping movement.
4 Startle reflex: This takes place if startled by a sudden loud noise or bring light, the baby will move arms outwards with elbows.

THE NEEDS OF NEWBORN

 All newborn babies have the same basic needs in order to live, grow and to develop in possible conditions. They needs:

-warmth, protection, food, love, security 

1. Warmth: A newborn baby can not control its own baby temperature. So it can quickly become very hot or very cold so that they need to be kept in constant warm conditions. The baby’s warm should be at around 20⁰ C.

2. Protection: The newborn babies need to be protected and kept safe because they are vulnerable and can not protect themselves, so others must do it for them.

3. Food: A baby needs food in form of milk and may be either breast or bottle fed.

4. Sleep: Most newborn babies spend a lot of time a sleep, waking only to be fed. The position of sleeping is important. It is advertised that babies sleep on their backs until they are old enough to turn over on their own. A cot death called SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome) is a sudden and unexpected death of a baby for non obvious reason after the baby has been put in the cot to sleep. In order to fight against that cot death, these advices should be respected:

• Babies should lie on their backs
• Keep the baby’s environment free from tobacco smoke
• Do not let babies over heat.
• Breast feeding helps protect babies against infection.
• Place the baby wit his or her feet at the bottom of the cot to prevent them wriggling under the covers.
• If the baby is unwell, seek medical advices.

The majority of the cot deaths occur in babies under the age of one year up to the age off two years.

5. Love and security: Close contact is important for a newborn baby. Bonding is the unconditional love between parents and their children. It should develop through close skin and eye contact in the early weeks of life.

1. Crying: Crying is a baby’s way of communicating with others in order to tell them that something is needed. Babies cry for several reasons: thirst, discomfort, dislike of the dark, boredom , hunger, tiredness, sudden noise, pain …

2. Premature babies: A premature baby is one who is born before 37 weeks of pregnancy. His/her weight is less than 2.5 kg. These babies need special care as they may have problems with breathing, sucking, maintaining their own body temperature. 

3. Incubators: A premature baby is kept in incubator from birth. An incubator is an apparatus that can be seen through and acts like uterus for the under developed baby. It provides baby with: Oxygen to help with breathing problems, A tube that will supply the baby with food, Constant humidity and temperature control. 

                                            STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
Development is often described in term of developmental stages. Throughout the sections or development the term “milestones” is very important. Milestones of development are a way of assessing the progress of a baby and are used to monitor development.

1. Developmental screening tests

This involves observing the child in series of tests. It is normal for these to be variations in developmental progress. The normal progression of development depends on various factors:

• The genes the child has inherited.
• The health of the child.
• The environment in which the child is brought up.
• Stimulation and encouragement provided by parents.

2. Development of movement

There are two areas of physical development: a) Gross motor skills and b) fine manipulation. 

1. GROSS MOTOR SKILLS

It involves use of the large muscles in the body and include activities such as walking, running and climbing.

1. Head control

• At 1 month: newborn babies have weak muscles of neck and they can not support their heads.

• At 3 months: baby has developed some head control.
• At 6 months: baby has full head control and use shoulders to pull themselves into a sitting position.

2. Sitting up

In new baby, the muscles are not developed in the back and he/she can not sit up.

• At 3 months: baby can sit with support.
• At 6 months: the baby can sit up right with a straight back but he/she will still need support.
• From 9 months: the baby can sit unsupported for a while and turn the baby when reaching out for a toy.

3. Lying on the stomach (prone position)

• At 3 months: the baby can lift both the head and chest off the floor.
• At 6 months: a baby will start rolling over.
• At 9 months: they move about the floor.
• At 1 year: the babies can crawl on their hands and feet to move.

                  D. Standing and walking

• From birth to 3 months: a newborn has an automatic reflex action called ‘walking reflex’
• By 6 months: baby can support their weight and can hold in a standing position.
• At 9 months; a baby can pull him/herself into a standing position.
• At 1 year; a baby can walk without one hand hold.
• By 13 months; some babies can walk alone but they may not have good balance.
• At 15 months; most babies can walk alone and can crawl.
• By 18 months; the child can walk and stop without sitting down over suddenly.
• At 2 years; a child can run safely, climb, walk up and down stairs using both feet on each step, sit on a tricycle and move it with his/her feet.
• By 2-2 and half; the child can tip toe and jump with both feet together.
• At 3 years; a baby can ride a tricycle using pedals and can go up stairs one foot at a time.
• By 4 years; child can walk up and down, stairs like an adult, ride a tricycle with skills and can catch, kick and bounce a ball.
• By 5 years; a child can skip, stand on one foot, hop and demonstrate good coordination when playing games.

2. FINE MANIPULATIVE SKILLS.

A newborn baby has an automatic reflex action called the Grasp reflex.

• By 3 months; the baby will start to control the hands.
• At 6 months; a baby can grasp an object using the whole hand to pass a toy from one hand to another.
• At 9 months; the fingers and the thumb are use d to grasp an object known as ‘finger grasp’
• At 1 year; the baby can point with the index finger and place one brick on top of another.
• At 15 months; the baby can show a preference for one hand over the other and can grasp a crayon using a whole hand grasp.
• T 18 months; child can build a tower of three to five bricks, scribble a picture, use a spoon for feeding and hold a pencil.
• At 2 years; a child can build a tower of six or more bricks, draw circles, lines and dots, drink from a cup and turn single pages in a book.
• At 3 years; child can build a tower of none to ten bricks.
• At 4 years; child can threat small beads and use a pencil as an adult and draw a figure with head, legs and body.
• The child can use a knife and fork for eating, has acquired good pencil control.

3. Development of teeth
1. At 6 months; the teeth begin to emerge.
2. At 3 years; a child will have 20 teeth. Those are called ‘milk teeth’.
3. At 5 years; the milk teeth begin to fall out as roots disappear.
4. At 6 years; permanent teeth begin to emerge. Milk teeth usually come though in a certain order.

Development conditions
In order for children to grow and develop physically, certain conditions should be provided by the parents and carers. These include: warmth, rest, exercises and fresh air, routine, regular sleeping patterns, cleanliness, the hosing environment. 
Warmth: all children need to be kept warm, especially newborn babies.
Rest, exercise and fresh air: It is important to maintain a balance of rest and exercise for children. They should be encouraged to play outside as much as possible because it enables them to practice physical skills. Fresh air and plenty of exercise will encourage the child to sleep soundly and develop a health appetite.
Routine: as the baby gets older, it is important to establish a routine for sleeping, feeding, bathing and so on to provide the child with a sense of security and to fit in with family life.
Cleanliness: babies and children need to be kept clean.
The housing environment: the type of house that a child is brought up in wills an effect on their overall development. The child needs to be brought up in a warm, safe and secure environment in order to reach his/her full potential in all areas of development. 
UNIT III.    NUTRITION AND HEALTH 

1. NUTRITION

Nutrition is the study of the nutrients found in the food in our diet. The nutrient found in food is one of the most things that help children to grow physically, biologically and also intellectually. Some functions of nutrients are:

• To help the body grow and repair.
• To provide energy in order to carry out physical activities.
• To keep the body warm.
• To help carry out other essential processes such as digestion.

The micronutrients are nutrients that the body needs in large amount. These are proteins, carbonates and fats. 

• Protein is needed for the growth and repair of body tissues such as blood cell and muscles.
• Carbohydrate foods provide the body with energy. The most are sugar, starches and dietary fibers.
• Fats are the most concentrated form energy. Although fats are a useful source of energy too much fat can b e harmful because of other substances associated with fats.

2. A BALANCED DIET

 Healthy eating habit in childhood should help reduce the risk of diet-related illnesses in later life. A balanced diet contains proteins, carbohydrates and fats. Babies are born with natural reflex to suck. If baby is put to its mother’s breast after birth, it will start to suck. Colostrums are a protein-rich in liquid or first milk from mother’s breast. 

Nutritional requirements of a newborn
Breast milk can supply all nutrients a body needs. Formula milk (for babies) is the only alternative to breast milk for babies up to the age of six months. Different milks contains nutritional value such as protein, phosphorus, iron, vitamin A, C and D. cow’s milk is not suitable for young baby as it has more protein and salt than breast milk.
A newborn may be breastfed up to 10 a day but after first few weeks the baby will settle down to a regular pattern of feeding. This will mean about 6 feeds/24 hours. 

3. WEANING

WEANING means a change over from milk to more solid food. Baby is ready to start weaning he/she appears restless or hungry after a feed, waking at night, appears to want to be fed more often. 
Stages of weaning.

1. Stage 1: the first weaning food will need to be similar to milk. Baby cereal such as rice mixed with formula milk is a suitable weaning food. Vegetables and fruits are also good.
2. Stage 2: at 6 months, baby is able to chew and to use spoon-feeding. He/she must be given less or more solid food.
3. Stage 3: at 9 months to 1 year, baby will probably be eating solid food with a top up milk dink from a feeder cup.

            Diet-related issues.

1. Food refusal: term used when children refuses to eat their food. It happens between 9 months and 4 years. The reasons are several:
• Children go through development stages where they will not co-operate with others and it is normal for them to say no and refuse to do something.
• Children enjoy mealtime as an experience and enjoy playing with the food as much as eating it.
• Children may not like the taste of the foods.
• Some children have small appetite.
• Many children see the food refusal as a way of seeking attention.
2. Food intolerance: it is a reaction to a food or an ingredient in the food. Food intolerance has symptoms in babies: skin rashes, abdominal cramps and more serious reactions.

4. FOOD PREPARATION

Food for babies and young children needs to be prepared in a clean and safe environment as they are more vulnerable to infection.
Food poisoning: foods products are a source of nutrients for bacteria. When food is contaminated, bacteria multiply rapidly and they produce toxins. Babies and young children are little resistant to these bacteria.
Gastroenteritis: it is an inflammation of the stomach and it is caused by toxins (poisons produced by bacteria). Symptoms are vomiting and diarrhea.
Food hygiene for young children
Food safety issues:
-Keep food cold to prevent the growth of bacteria.
-keep food covered to prevent cross-contamination. Food handlers should always keep their hands clean.
RESPONSES TO INFECTION
As children grow, they’re likely to suffer from one or more infectious diseases. Infectious diseases are caused by bacteria or viruses and they’re spread by contact and droplet infection.
Incubation period: it is a period situated between catching the illness and the appearance of first symptoms. It is characterized by rapid multiplication of bacteria and viruses.
Infectious stage: begins from the apparition of first symptoms. At this time, bacteria should spread from one child to another.

5. IMMUNIZATION (VACCINATION)

Immunity is the body’s ability to resist infection. Immunization or vaccination is an act of giving to child a vaccine that makes his body produce antibodies to fight infection. Common infections that require immunization are: polio, diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, hib meningitis, measles, mumps and rubella. Baby is recommended to be immunized at the age of 8 weeks, 12 weeks, 16 weeks, 12-15 months and 3-5 years.  

6. LEARNING TO FEED THEMSELVES.

When young children start learning to feed themselves, they get very messy.

• At 12 months, babies will mainly use their hands to feed themselves.
• By 2 years, they can use a spoon well and may manage a fork.
• By 3 years, they can use a knife, fork and spoon and serve themselves from dishes. They may need help to cut up difficult food.

7. CARING FOR SICK CHILDREN

Every child will get ill at anytime in his/her childhood. How to tell if a child is unwell? When babies and young children are unwell, they need to be cared for. Usually it is easy to know if a child is ill by her/his behavior which changes.

• Loss of appetite,
• Flushed appearance,
• Raised temperature,
• Being irritable and claming and
• Tiredness and crying.

A sick child needs a rest and a sleep in quite room, medication prescribed by a doctor, plenty of fluids to drink, a warm and draught-free room at about 22^oC, comfort and reassurance from the family.
Regression: any form of illness can affect a child’s development progress. A severe or prolonged illness can actually cause the child to regress. A regression is when a child returns to behaviour he/she showed when he/she were younger. Fore example, a four-years-old who has had a prolonged hospital stay could start to have tantrums. When the child returns to normal health, he/she will soon start to make progress again.  
UNIT IV. INTELLECTUAL, SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

1. INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT

Intellectual development is the development of mind. It is also known as cognitive development and is about the child’s understanding. Intellectual development depends on two main factors: - the genes the child has inherited
                - The environment the child is brought up in
The terms nature and nurture are often used for describing these factors.
NATURE: refers to the child’s natural ability inherited from his/her parents.
NURTURE: refers to the way a child is stimulated and the amount of interaction that takes place with these around the child.
The child is given love and security and is given a healthy diet. From these conditions, the child will develop the following skills: concentration, memory, language, creativity, imagination and the building up of concepts (ideas).
The senses: children use all five senses: sight, smell, taste, touch and hearing. Parents can encourage and stimulate the child’s senses by providing mobiles, a variety of toys and objects.
How children learn? Children learn by:

1. Exploring: when they are offered toys and objects and other interesting thing, they learn by exploring whatever around them. Therefore they gain information and knowledge.
2. Repetition: children learn by listening and looking at what is going on, many repetitions time and time again, they will learn and remember what is said or what is happening. A memory is used for storing and recalling.
3. Imitation: by copying what they see and hear in environment, they learn new sounds, words. They do role-play when they are copying the adult’s roles.
4. Looking at books: children learn by sharing a book with adult. Picture books, books that make sounds or contain different textures are important for young babies.
5. Asking questions: at around three years, children will ask constant questions. Parents and carers must be patient and give answers that are clear to what is asked.

STAGES OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT

Intellectual development has milestones that show the average age at which a child progresses. The parents and carers need to provide stimulation to encourage a child to go through these milestones (using senses, understanding, drawing, songs, rhymes…)

DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE

After birth babies communicate with others by making noises, using facial expressions, making eye contact, using their hands by pointing, touching and pulling at objects. Babies can communicate in non- verbal way with other people. They learn language at an early age and are given stimulation with speech; they will develop through the milestones of communication with few problems. Children who are not given any stimulation may have speech difficulties so that adults can help them by listening to them, being patient, repeating words and phrases, praising and encouraging, answering questions, reading stories, singing…

Speech problems and pre-reading skills

1. Speech problems
• STAMMERING: or stuttering is a common problem that young children may experience when learning to speak (2-4 years).
• DEAFNESS: it is linked to poor speech development. A deaf child will be slow to learn to speak, or may not be able to speak at all if deafness is total.
2. Pre- writing skills: As storing shapes, exploring a picture book and other activities are very important to prepare a child for learning to read.
3. Pre-writing skills: before starting school, pre-writing skills are related to speech development as well as pre-reading skills. It is useful to child to be able to hold a pencil correctly and be able to for; shapes of letters .parents and cares should continue encourage hi; and her.

                        LEARNING THROUGH PLAY

Play is natural way of learning and discovering about everything around the children. it is important as it encourages all the areas of development: social, physical, intellectual, emotional and language.

There are several different types of play:

• Physical play: it encourages the development of gross motor ad fine manipulative skills. e.g.: running, climbing, play with a ball…
• Creative play: encourages the development of Physical and intellectual skills where Child expresses his or her feelings with a variety of materials. e.g.  Painting, coloring, building/construction toys.
• Imaginative play: it help children to understand how people behave and the world around them. A child can act out adult roles. E.g. As doctor, teachers…
• Explanatory play: it involves the senses of sight, touch, smell, taste and hearing. It enables a child to find things out for him/herself and his/her own pace.
• Social play : it encourages social development of a child such as sharing and being co-operative with a group, teaches acceptable behavior.

All these types of play are linked together and apart from encouraging the development areas, play also : prevents boredom, reduces stress, diverts aggression, helps towards happiness, helps children to find out about the world around them. The toys that children can with should be selected in function of the following factors:

• Be suitable for the age of the child and his/her ability,
• Be made of safe materials and
• Be interested to the child and help to develop new skills…

2. SOCIALIZATION

Social development is the process of children learning how to behave and how to fit in with the people around them. Socialization means learning the social skills that enable a child to get on with others and to behave in a way that is acceptable. 
                             STAGES OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Children pass through milestones in social development. Here are some of them:

• Newborn babies cry if they are lonely and can be comforted when they are cuddled.
• At around one month, babies recognize their mothers’ face.
• At 12 months old, the babies help with feeding and dressing and join in conversations at mealtime.
• At 15 months the child has developed self-confidence and copies others.
• By 5 years, a child chooses his or her own friends, eats correctly, knows his or her full name and address…

                           THE INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT
Child’s environment can influence the way their social skills develop. E.g. If a child lives in a remote country area, it may be difficult to have contact with others of the same age. A child from a poor family may be jealous of others who have more toys than him/her.
                           DISCIPLINE
It is required in order for a child to learn how to behave and how to control his/her own feelings. Parents and carers should ensure that discipline is fair, firm and that the child understands what is expected for him/her. Children should be given praise for good behavior and some form of punishment for bad behavior. 

3. EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Emotional development is the development of child’s emotions. It is linked with other areas but particularly with social development. Everyone experiences both positive and negative emotions and these feelings can often. Child needs to learn how to control his/her feelings. Parents and carers should provide opportunities to their children to play for example in role-play because it will encourage him/her to develop personality and independence. 
STAGES OF EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Children pass through different stages of emotional development:

• Newborn babies use body movements to express pleasure.
• At 6 months, the baby may develop shyness and becomes upset when the mother leaves the room.
• At the age of 5 years, the child shows sympathy to others who are hurt and may be happy to leave parents or carers for a while, e.g. to go to school.
•  

UNIT V  FAMILY AND COMMUNITY 

1. FAMILY STRUCTURE

Family refers to a group of people who live together or who are related by marriage or blood, it is the basic unit of society.
They are four types of families namely:
-Nuclear family
-Extended family
-Lone-parent family
-Reconstituted family 
Notice that the family plays a key role in the socialization of children for that the parents or carers should take account to that issue because when a child insecure may have negative feelings due to the different environmental   factors such as: regression, sibling, rivalry, fears and nightmares.
And when a child feels secure may be comfortable for instance, a child who receives the crucial toys. 

2. CHANGING PATTERNS OF FAMILY LIFE

 Apart from the traditional families most couples starting to have families today see family responsibilities as shared roles.

The mothers and the fathers do not have separate roles where there are the following advantages:
-Living improvement
-Closer relationship between children and parents.
-Children are brought up with that attitude.  
3. LOOKED- AFTER CHILDREN 
The best place for children is with their families but there are situations where that is       not possible.
For example:-The parents who are unable to look after the child because of illness, poverty,
-the child abuse and negligence of child.
For these reasons, there are social services departments which care for the children such as:-Residential care for children.
-Faster care
-And Adoption. 

1. CARE FOR CHILDREN RESIDENTIAL

This refers to adult cares take responsibilities for small groups of children to built up a secure and caring relationship with them in short term care. 

2. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FOSTER CARE AND ADOPTION

FOSTER CARE	ADOPTION
-No legal rights over the child	-Legal right over the child
-An allowance to cover the cost of bringing up the child.	-To financially cover the cost  bringing up the child
-Temporary responsibility for child	-Permanent responsibilities for the child.

3. DAY- CARE PROVISION

 This refers to the needs of other carers apart from the parents for their children during the days while they are working. There is a wide large range of day-care provision available to children under five years of age: Day nurseries, Nursery schools or workplace, Children minders and play groups. All these are applicable but many parents and carers choose a children minder because it is the cheapest. 

4. COMMUNITY

 The community is a group of people living in local area. The community provides a wide range of services for families, information about financial support for families in available at the local benefits agency office. Means-tested universal benefits are targeted in families in greatest needs, and income for instance about universal benefits are child benefits disability allowance, free dental treatments and medical prescriptions. 

1. SOCIAL SERVICES

The personal social services are designed to meet the social needs of vulnerable groups in society such as children and families in needs of support. The services are provided by the local authority or voluntary and private organizations. The social workers deal with many family issues such as:

• Parenting problems
• Financial problems for a family
• Violence in home
• Child protection
• Provision of statutory services.

They are focusing on: 

1. The needs of lone parent family

The lone-parent families are more likely to have low incomes and to be dependent on social welfare for financial support by providing for them potential basic needs.

2. Child support Agency

It has a responsibility to make sure the absent parent contributes towards the maintenance of his/her child.

WELFARE TO WORK SCHEME

The welfare to work scheme is a government initiative to encourage people on benefits to find jobs and to become less dependent on welfare provision. 

2. VOLUNTARY AGENCIES

Voluntary agencies after work with the statutory services to provide a mixture of care. Voluntary agencies can help families in a number of ways such  as direct assistance, advice and  counseling, self-help  group, pressure group and non –profit making groups. The council for voluntary service co-ordinates local voluntary groups. Informal care is given voluntarily by family, friends and neighbors to help and support individuals and families in need.

5. SPECIAL NEED CHILDREN

It refers to the additional help and support to live a fulfilling life. The special needs children are concerning:

1. Congenital disabilities: this is present at the birth for instance brain damage.
2. Specific disabilities: * physical disabilities: those are like blindness, deafness                      

                                         * Antistic children: it refers to the lack of communication with the others. E.g. speech and language. 

Teacher’s implication

All children should have equal opportunities to education. The families maintaining those children should be supported by and benefits from voluntary agencies. Those children should gain the special facilities like toys, specialists, special programs helping speed of developmental progress especially in the pre-school special need children.

6. CHILD SAFETY

The children are condemned by the death caused by accidents because they are not aware of dangers in their environment for that reason the parent and carers should be responsible of their children safety.
Accident prevention

• An awareness of most likely hazards can reduce the risks of accidents.
• Young children should never be left unsupervised.
• Serious accidents often happen in the kitchen.
• All homes should have a basic first aid box for parents and carers to use.
• Many household chemicals are hazardous.
• Keep all household chemicals out of sight and out of reach of children is advisable.
• All children who travel in a car must be in safety restraints.

Children need to exploit as a part of their growing independence and parents carers need to allow the children this opportunity but in safe and supervised environment.  

 

Characteristics of Adolescents
Sometimes it is difficult for us to remember what being an adolescent was like. Today’s tip is a reminder of the characteristics of adolescents. The more you understand them, the greater the likelihood of dealing with them in a sane, positive manner! If you keep these characteristics in mind while designing your instruction, you can provide an atmosphere conducive to learning for all of your students.
Characteristics of Young Adolescents Youth between the ages of 10 to 15 are characterized by their diversity as they move through the puberty growth cycle at varying times and rates. Yet as a group they reflect important developmental characteristics that have major implications for those agencies that seek to serve them.

INTELLECTUALCHARACTERISTICS OF ADOLESCENT
Adolescents:
• Display a wide range of individual intellectual development
• Are in a transition period from concrete thinking to abstract thinking
• Are intensely curious and have a wide range of intellectual pursuits, few of which are sustained
• Prefer active over passive learning experiences
• Prefer interaction with peers during learning activities
• Respond positively to opportunities to participate in real life situations
• Are often preoccupied with self
• Have a strong need for approval and may be easily discouraged
• Develop an increasingly better understanding of personal abilities
• Are inquisitive about adults, often challenging their authority, and always observing them
• May show disinterest in conventional academic subjects but are intellectually curious about the world and themselves
• Are developing a capacity to understand higher levels of humor

MORAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ADOLESCENT
Adolescents:
• Are generally idealistic, desiring to make the world a better place and to become socially useful
• Are in transition from moral reasoning which focuses on “what’s in it for me” to that which considers the feelings and rights of others
• Often show compassion for those who are downtrodden or suffering and have special concern for animals and the environmental problems that our world faces
• Are moving from acceptance of adult moral judgments to development of their own personal values; nevertheless, they tend to embrace values consonant with those of their parents
• Rely on parents and significant adults for advice when facing major decisions
• Increasingly assess moral matters in shades of grey as opposed to viewing them in black and white terms characteristic of younger children
• At times are quick to see flaws in others but slow to acknowledge their own faults
• Owing to their lack of experience are often impatient with the pace of change, underestimating the difficulties in making desired social changes
• Are capable of and value direct experience in participatory democracy
• Greatly need and are influenced by adult role models who will listen to them and affirm their moral consciousness and actions as being trustworthy role models
• Are increasingly aware of and concerned about inconsistencies between values exhibited by adults and the conditions they see in society
PHYSICALCHARACTERISTICS
Adolescents:
• Experience rapid, irregular physical growth
• Undergo bodily changes that may cause awkward, uncoordinated movements
• Have varying maturity rates, with girls tending to mature one and one-half to two years earlier than boys
• May be at a disadvantage because of varied rates of maturity that may require the understanding of caring adults
• Experience restlessness and fatigue due to hormonal changes
• Need daily physical activity because of increased energy
• Develop sexual awareness that increases as secondary sex characteristics begin to appear
• Are concerned with bodily changes that accompany sexual maturation and changes resulting in an increase in nose size, protruding ears, long arms, and awkward posture
• Have preference for junk foods but need good nutrition
• Often lack physical fitness, with poor levels of endurance, strength, and flexibility
• Are physically vulnerable because they may adopt poor health habits or engage in risky experimentation with drugs and sex


EMOTIONALAND PSYCHOLOGICALCHARACTERISTICS
Adolescents:
• Experience mood swings often with peaks of intensity and unpredictability
• Need to release energy, often resulting in sudden, apparently meaningless outbursts of activity
• Seek to become increasingly independent, searching for adult identity and acceptance
• Are increasingly concerned about peer acceptance
• Tend to be self-conscious, lacking in self-esteem, and highly sensitive to personal criticism
• Exhibit intense concern about physical growth and maturity as profound physical changes occur
• Increasingly behave in ways associated with their sex as sex role identification strengthens
• Are concerned with many major societal issues as personal value systems develop
• Believe that personal problems, feelings, and experiences are unique to themselves
• Are psychologically vulnerable, because at no other stage in development are they more likely to encounter so many differences between themselves and others.
SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS
Adolescents:
• Have a strong need to belong to a group, with peer approval becoming more important as adult approval decreases in importance
• In their search for self, model behavior after older, esteemed students or non-parent adults
• May exhibit immature behavior because their social skills frequently lag behind their mental and physical maturity
• Experiment with new slang and behaviors as they search for a social position within their group, often discarding these “new identities” at a later date
• Must adjust to the social acceptance of early maturing girls and the athletic successes of early maturing boys, especially if they themselves are maturing at a slower rate
• Are dependent on parental beliefs and values but seek to make their own decisions
• Are often intimidated and frightened by their first middle level school experience because of the large numbers of students and teachers and the size of the building
• Desire recognition for their efforts and achievements
• Like fads, especially those shunned by adults
• Often overreact to ridicule, embarrassment, and rejection
• Are socially vulnerable because, as they develop their beliefs, attitudes, and values, the influence of media and negative experiences with adults and peers may compromise their ideals and values


By different characteristics of adolescence period, parents, teachers and other concerns like authorities must take into account of adolescents’ needs so that their related behaviors should be directed in suitable and non-obvious way.